Archive

Download full text in PDF

Bani S, Khamanga SMM, Tandlich R, Wilhelmi B. Continuous assessment of drinking and surface water quality: Addressing the key challenges to sustainable water access in Makhanda, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Bìol Tvarin. 2026; 28 (2): 10–24. DOI: 10.15407/animbiol28.02.010.
https://doi.org/10.15407/animbiol28.02.010
Received 17.11.2025 ▪ Revision 18.06.2026 ▪ Accepted 06.07.2026 ▪ Published online 31.08.2026

Continuous assessment of drinking and surface water quality: Addressing the key challenges to sustainable water access in Makhanda, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Siphumze Bani1, Sandile M. M. Khamanga1, Roman Tandlich1*, Brendan Wilhelmi2

*This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.; This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

1Rhodes University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Artillery Road, P.O. Box 94, Makhanda, 6140, South Africa
2Rhodes University, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology Artillery Road, P.O. Box 94, Makhanda, 6140, South Africa

The small city of Makhanda has been facing issues of limited water access over the years, which badly affect public health, well-being, and socio-economic functioning. This observational study encourages the continuous assessment of drinking and surface water quality as an approach to communicating and finding solutions to these challenges. Water samples from site 3 had no fecal coliforms, however, 0.42±0.09 CFU/100 ml of total bacteria was observed to be resistant to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, doxycycline, penicillin G and sulfamethoxazole, and susceptible to ciprofloxacin, kanamycin, and rifampicin. The Gram-staining and potassium hydroxide test techniques revealed the bacteria to be Staphylococcus aureus. In addition to the conventional physicochemical quality parameters, the potentiometric electronic tongue instrument was employed to analyse the aesthetic quality (taste). The drinking water samples from sites 3 and 4 were bitter and sour, respectively, while water samples from sites 1, 2 and 6 were sweet, and sites 5, 7, and 8 had an umami taste. The taste profiles correlate with drinking water’s microbial and physicochemical quality and can be used to predict long-term health risk conditions such as nephrolithiasis. Continuous microbiome and antibiotic resistance profiling are essential to predict and quantify public health risks in drinking and surface water.

Keywords: electronic tongue, water quality, fecal coliforms, continuous assessment

  1. Abia ALK, Tekere M. Assessing the impact of COVID-19 restrictions on the microbial quality of an urban water catchment and the associated probability of waterborne infections. Sci Total Environ. 2023; 856 (1): 159098. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159098.
  2. Addis TZ, Adu JT, Kumarasamy M, Demilie M. Assessment of existing fate and transport models for predicting antibiotic degradation and transport in the aquatic environment: A review. Water. 2023; 15 (8): 1511. DOI: 10.3390/w15081511.
  3. Angala HAN, Tandlich R, Ngqwala NP, Zuma BM. Efficiency of a decentralised system in the treatment of rainwater in South Africa. “Air and Water — Components of the Environment” Conference Proceedings, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 2019: 1–8. DOI: 10.24193/AWC2019_01.
  4. Baldwin EA, Bai J, Plotto A, Dea S. Electronic noses and tongues: Applications for the food and pharmaceutical industries. Sensors. 2011; 11 (5): 4744–4766. DOI: 10.3390/s110504744.
  5. Bangani L, Kabiti HM, Amoo O, Nakin MDV, Magayiyana Z. Impacts of illegal solid waste dumping on the quality of the Mthatha River. Water Pract Technol. 2023; 18 (5): 1011–1021. DOI: 10.2166/wpt.2023.053.
  6. Bani S, Matambo C, Limson J, Zuma BM, Tandlich R. Operation and performance of the Lab and Pilot-scale Greywater Treatment Systems: Biochar and Gravel use in South Africa. J Solid Waste Technol Managem. 2024; 50 (1): 458–478. DOI: 10.5276/jswtm/iswmaw/501/2024.458.
  7. Benoit MÈ, Prévost M, Succar A, Charron D, Déziel E, Robert E, Bédard E. Faucet aerator design influences aerosol size distribution and microbial contamination level. Sci Total Environm. 2021; 775: 145690. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145690.
  8. Bredenhann L, La Grange D, Bezuidenhout C, Molale-Tom L. Physico-chemical and microbiological analysis of the Loopspruit River, North West Province: A metagenomic approach. Water Supply. 2023; 23 (1): 94–113. DOI: 10.2166/w2022.431.
  9. Brettenny W, Sharp G. Efficiency evaluation of urban and rural municipal water service authorities in South Africa: A data envelopment analysis approach. Water SA. 2016; 42 (1): 11–19. DOI: 10.4314/wsa.v42i1.02.
  10. Buri ES, Keesara VR, Loukika KN, Sridhar V, Dzwairo B, Montenegro S. Climate-adaptive optimal water resources management: A multi-sectoral approach for the Munneru river basin, India. J Environ Managem. 2025; 374: 124014. DOI: 10.1016/jenvman.2024.124014.
  11. Chittaphithakchai P, Chomphulao N, Kantasap P, Wongput K, Kaitpoka P, Leesurapong T, Loakuldilok T, Poonlarp P, Wangtuei S, Jirarattanarangsri W, Surawang S, Osiriphun S. Assessing the likelihood of Staphylococcus aureus contamination in bottled drinking water production. Biol Life Sci Forum. 2023; 26 (1): 115. DOI: 10.3390/Foods2023-15073.
  12. Cho S, Moazzem MS. Recent applications of potentiometric electronic tongue and electronic nose in sensory evaluation. Prev Nutr Food Sci. 2022; 27 (4): 354–364. DOI: 10.3746/pnf.2022.27.4.354.
  13. Daly SW, Harris AR. Modeling exposure to fecal contamination in drinking water due to multiple water source use. Environ Sci Technol. 2022; 56 (6): 3419–3429. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c05683.
  14. Delair Z, Schoeman M, Reyneke B, Singh A, Barnard TG. Assessing the impact of Escherichia coli on recreational water safety using quantitative microbial risk assessment. J Water Health. 2024; 22 (10): 1781–1793. DOI: 10.2166/wh.2024.081.
  15. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF). South African Water Quality Guidelines: Domestic Use. 1996. ISBN 0-7988-5339-5.
  16. Dias LG, Alberto Z, Veloso ACA, Peres AM. Electronic tongue: A versatile tool for mineral and fruit-flavored waters recognition. J Food Measur Charact. 2025; 10: 264–273. DOI: 10.1007/s11694-015-9303-y.
  17. Du Y, Liu X, Dong X, Yin Z. A review on marine plastisphere: Biodiversity, formation, and role in degradation. Comput Struct Biotechnol J. 2022; 20: 975–988. DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2022.02.008.
  18. South African Water Quality Guidelines — Agricultural Use: Irrigation. 1996. ISBN 0-7988-5342-5. Available at: https://www.dws.gov.za/iwqs/wq_guide/edited/Pol_saWQguideFRESHIrrigationvol4.pdf
  19. South African Water Quality Guidelines — Agricultural Use: Livestock Watering. 1996. ISBN 0-7988-5343-3. Available at https://www.ddyn.com/downloads/docsofinterest/DWA0/Livestock5.pdf
  20. National Integrated Water Information System. 2024. Available at: https://www.dws.gov.za/niwis2
  21. Dzhangi TR, Atangana E. Evaluation of the impact of coal mining on surface water in the Boesmanspruit, Mpumalanga, South Africa. Environ Earth Sci. 2024; 83: 159. DOI: 10.1007/s12665-024-11431-6.
  22. Edokpayi JN, Rogawski ET, Kahler DM, Hill CL, Reynolds C, Nyathi E, Smith JA, Odiyo JO, Samie A, Bessong P, Dillingham R. Challenges to sustainable safe drinking water: A case study of water quality and use across seasons in rural communities in Limpopo province, South Africa. Water. 2017; 10 (2): 159. DOI: 10.3390/w10020159.
  23. Esteves R, Dikici B, Lehman M, Mazumder Q, Onukwuba N. Determination of aqueous surfactant solution surface tensions with a surface tensiometer. Beyond Undergrad Res J. 2016; 1 (1): 4. Available at: https://commons.erau.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1022&context=beyond
  24. Fazel-Rastgar F, Sivakumar V, Rostami M, Fallah B. Unveiling meteorological synergies in the coupling of anabnormal easterly wave and cutoff low in South Africa’s February 2023 rainfall. Meteorol Appl. 2025; 32 (1): e70027. DOI: 10.1002/met.70027.
  25. Fomeni FD, Ali M, Fernández DA, Cabrera-Codony A, Monclús H. An optimization model for the energy management of the network of tanks in a drinking water distribution system. Intern Transact Oper Res. 2024;33 (4): 2709–2730. DOI: 10.1111/itor.13607.
  26. Gomes M, Ralph TJ, Humphries MS, Graves BP, Kobayashi T, Gore DB. Waterborne contaminants in high intensity agriculture and plant production: A review of on-site and downstream impacts. Sci Total Environ. 2025; 958: 178084. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.178084.
  27. Graham PM, Pattison NB, Bakir A, McGoran AR, Nel HA. Determination of microplastics in sediment, water, and fish across the Orange-Senqu River basin. Water Res. 2024; 266: 122394. DOI: 10.1016/j.watr2024.122394.
  28. Gutiérrez-Capitán M, Brull-Fontserè M, Jiménez-Jorquera C. Organoleptic analysis of drinking water using an electronic tongue based on electrochemical microsensors. Sensors. 2019; 19 (6): 1435. DOI: 10.3390/s19061435.
  29. Hauner IM, Deblais A, Beattie JK, Kellay H, Bonn D. The dynamic surface tension of water. J Phys Chem Lett. 2017; 8 (7): 1599–1603. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.7b00267.
  30. Hodgson K, Manus L. A drinking water quality framework for South Africa. Water SA. 2006; 32 (5): 47853. DOI: 10.4314/wsa.v32i5.47853.
  31. Hoorzook KB, Pieterse A, Heine L, Barnard TG, Rensburg NJ. Soul of the Jukskei river: The extent of bacterial contamination in the Juksei River in Gauteng province, South Africa. Int J Environ Res Publ Health. 2021; 18 (16): 8537. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18168537.
  32. Iyer V, Raut J, Dasgupta A. Impact of pH on growth of Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus in vitro. J Med Microbiol. 2021; 70 (9): 1421. DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.001421.
  33. Jiang H, Zhang M, Bhandari B, Adhikari B. Application of electronic tongue for fresh foods quality evaluation: A review. Food Rev Int. 2018; 34 (8): 746–769. DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2018.1424184.
  34. Kapwata T, Mathee A, Le Roux WJ, Wright CY. Diarrhoeal disease in relation to possible household risk factors in South African villages. Int J Environ Res Publ Health.2018; 15 (8): 1665. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15081665.
  35. Khumalo L, Mickelsson M, Fogel R, Mutingwende N, Madikiza L, Limson J. Progressing from science communication to engagement: Community voices on water quality and access in Makhanda. Sustainability. 2024; 16 (1): 459. DOI: 10.3390/su16010459.
  36. Kotzé HC, Bahta YT, Jordaan H, Monteiro MA. Assessing commercial sugarcane irrigators’ intentions to adapt water-use behaviour in response to climate variability in South Africa. Water. 2024; 16 (23): 3454. DOI: 10.3390/w16233454.
  37. Kovacs Z, Sipos L, Kantor DB, Kokai Z, and Fekete A. Mineral water taste attributes evaluated by sensory panel and electronic tongue. AIP Conf Proc. 15–17 April 2009; 1137 (1): 489–492. DOI: 10.1063/1.3156591.
  38. Kovács Z, Sipos L, Szöllősi D, Kókai Z, Székely, G, Fekete A. Electronic tongue and sensory evaluation for sensing apple juice taste attributes. Sensor Lett. 2011; 9: 1273–1281. DOI: 10.1166/sl.2011.1687.
  39. Kwok M, McGeorge S, Roberts M, Somani B, Rukin N. Mineral content variations between Australian tap and bottled water in the context of urolithiasis. BJUI Compass. 2022; 3 (5): 377–382. DOI: 10.1002/bco2.168.
  40. Lechevallier MW, Seidler RJ. Staphylococcus aureus in rural drinking water. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1980; 39 (4): 739–742. DOI: 10.1128/aem.39.4.739-742.1980.
  41. Lestari MF, Al’Wahid MI, Fuady MIN, Yusriadi, Riyandari BA, Anisa DN. Analysis of mineral water quality based on SNI 3553:2015 and its consequences from legal perspectives. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2022; 1190: 012041. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/1190/1/012041.
  42. Lötter M, Le Maitre D. Fine-scale delineation of Strategic Water Source Areas for surface water in South Africa using Empirical Bayesian Kriging Regression Prediction: Technical report. Prepared for the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), Pretoria, 2021: 33 p. Available at: https://opus.sanbi.org/items/fc62c08f-ef24-4dc2-98d2-15b6e856f376
  43. Madikizela LM, Ncube S. Health effects and risks associated with the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in marine organisms and seafood. Sci Total Environ. 2022; 837: 155780. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155780.
  44. Majuru B, Suhrcke M, Hunter PR. How do households respond to unreliable water supplies? A systematic review. Int J Environ Res Publ Health. 2016; 13 (12): 1222. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph13121222.
  45. Maitre DC, Seyler H, Holland M, Smith-Adao L, Nel J, Maherry A, Witthüser K. Identification, Delineation and Importance of the Strategic Water Source Areas of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland for Surface Water and Groundwater.2018. Report no. TT 743/1/18, Water Research Commission, Pretoria. Available at: https://www.wrc.za/wp-content/uploads/mdocs/TT754-1_correct%20web.pdf
  46. Malema MS, Abia ALK, Tandlich R, Zuma B, Kahinda JMM, Ubomba-Jaswa E. Antibiotic-resistant pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from rooftop rainwater-harvesting tanks in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Int J Environ Res Publ Health. 2018; 15 (5): 892. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15050892.
  47. Malema MS, Kahinda JMM, Abia ALK, Tandlich R, Zuma BM, Ubomba-Jaswa E. The efficiency of a low-cost hydrogen sulphide (H2S) kit as an early warning test for assessing microbial rainwater quality and its correlation with standard indicators microorganisms. Nova Biotechnol Chim. 2019; 18 (2): 133–143. DOI: 10.2478/nbec-2019-0016.
  48. Malla MA, Nomalihle M, Featherston J, Kumar A, Amoah ID, Ismail A, Bux F, Kumari S. Comprehensive profiling and risk assessment of antibiotic resistomes in surface water and plastisphere by integrated shotgun metagenomics. J Hazard Mat. 2025; 487: 137180. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.137180.
  49. MarxIMG,Veloso ACA, Casal C, Pereira JA, Peres AM. Chapter 12 — Sensory analysis using electronic tongues. In: Galanakis CM. Innovative Food Analysis. 2021: 323–343. ISBN 978-0-12-819493-5. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-819493-5.00012-1.
  50. Masindi V, Foteinis S. Groundwater contamination in sub-Saharan Africa: Implications for groundwater protection in developing countries. Cleaner Eng Technol. 2021; 2: 100038. DOI: 10.1016/j.clet.2020.100038.
  51. Mazvimavi D, Clarke S, Day J, Dube T, Kanyerere T, Machingura J, Malijani E, Mkunyana YP, Swartbooi E. Understanding of surface water-groundwater interactions from headwaters to lowlands or catchment scale sustainable water resources management. WRC Report. 2022. 2855/1/22. ISBN 978-0-6392-0492-5.
  52. Mbanga J, Abia ALK, Amoako DG, Essack SY. Quantitative microbial risk assessment for waterborne pathogens in a wastewater treatment plant and its receiving surface water body. BMC Microbiol. 2020; 20: 346. DOI: 10.1186/s12866-020-02036-7.
  53. Mbewu AD, Elephant DE, Motsi H, Nyambo P. Climate change effects on water footprint of crop production: A meta-analysis. Environ Chall. 2024; 17: 101033. DOI: 10.1016/j.envc.2024.101033.
  54. Mdoda L, Naidoo D, Ncoyini-Manciya Z, Nontu Y, Govender L, Tamako N, Mdiya L. Adaptation measures to drought risk perceived by smallholder crop farmers in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa: Implications for Food and Nutrition Security. Sustainability. 2024; 16 (4): 11154. DOI: 10.3390/su162411154.
  55. Mhangara P, Gidey E, Mbazo M. Flood hazard monitoring and modeling systems for improving climate risk management using machine learning and geospatial models in the Hennops River catchment, Centurion, South Africa. Discov Sustainab. 2025; 6: 2. DOI: 10.1007/s43621-024-00735-z.
  56. Mhlongo S, Mativenga PT, Marnewick A. Water quality in a mining and water-stressed region. J Cleaner Prod. 2018; 171: 446–456. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.030.
  57. Mokoena P, Kanyerere T, Donker JB. Hydrogeochemical characteristics and evaluation of groundwater quality for domestic and irrigation purposes: A case study of the Heuningnes Catchment, Western Cape Province, South Africa. SN Appl Sci. 2020; 2: 1548. DOI: 10.1007/s42452-020-03339-0.
  58. Mongwe R, Rathidal S, Telukdarie A. Optimisation of water distribution network: A digital approach. Proc Am Soc Eng Managem 2023 Int Annu Conf 44th Annu Meeting: Climbing Higher with Engineering Management. 2023: 103–111. Available at: https://pure.uj.ac.za/en/publications/optimisation-of-water-distribution-network-a-digital-approach
  59. Morole MS, Yessoufou KY, Bufo SA, Rampedi IT, Modely LS. The impact of informal settlements on the surface water quality: a baseline analysis of the Kaalspruit in Tembisa township, South Africa. Urb Water J. 2023; 20 (10): 1756–1765. DOI: 10.1080/1573062X.2022.2099289.
  60. Mthembu PP, Elumalai V, Senthilkumar M, Wu J. Investigation of geochemical characterization and groundwater quality with special emphasis on health risk assessment in Alluvial Aquifers, South Africa. Int J Environ Sci Technol. 2021; 18: 3711–3730. DOI: 10.1007/s13762-021-03129-0.
  61. Mulangaphuma LH, Odusanya D, Jovanovic N. Evaluation of river and groundwater quality in the Mzimvubu to Tsitsikamma water management area (WMA7). Water. 2024; 16 (12): 1654. DOI: 10.3390/w16121654.
  62. Mulopo C, Kalinda C, Chimbari MJ. Contextual and psychosocial factors influencing the use of safe water sources: A case of Madeya Village, uMkhanyakude district, South Africa. Int J Environ Res Publ Health. 2020; 17 (4): 1349. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17041349.
  63. Murei A, Kamika I, Samie A, Momba NB. Assessment of the water sources for potential channels of faecal contamination within Vhembe District Municipality using sanitary inspections and hydrogen sulphide test. Sci Rep. 2023; 13: 6250. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-33551-y.
  64. Mutoti MI, Edokpayi JN, Mutileni N, Durowoju OS, Munyai FL. Cyanotoxins in groundwater; occurance, potential sources, health impacts and knowledge gap for public health. Toxicon. 2023; 226: 107077. DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107077.
  65. Mutoti MI, Gumbo JR, Khwathisi A, Jideani AIO. Newly isolated strains of potentially microcystin-producing cyanobacteria in potable water: case study of Mawoni village, South Africa. Front Environ Sci. 2024; 12: 1423339. DOI: 10.3389/fenvs.2024.1423339.
  66. Mutyambizi C, Mokhele T, Ndinda C, Hongoro C. Access to and satisfaction with basic services in informal settlements: Results from a baseline assessment survey. Int J Environ Res Publ Health. 2020; 17 (12): 4400. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17124400.
  67. Nam SH, Lee J, Kim E, Koo JW, Shin Y, Hwang TM. Electronic tongue for the simple and rapid determination of taste and odor compounds in water. Chemosphere. 2023; 338: 139511. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139511.
  68. Nam SH, Lee J, Kim E, Shin Y, Koo JW, Kye H, Park J, Jeon H, Song Y, Hwang TM. Electronic tongue and nose sensor coupled with fluorescence spectroscopy to analyze aesthetic water quality parameters in drinking water distribution system. Proc Saf Environ Protect. 2024; 188: 1201–1210. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2024.05.134.
  69. Ncube M, Ngqwala N, Tandlich R, Mantel SK. Water quality of roof harvested rainwater in Grahamstown, South Africa and its mathematical modelling. Novel Approaches to Rainwater Harvesting and Sanitation in Developing Countries. 2016; 27: 46.
  70. Nemadodzi L, Sikhwivhilu K, Jalama K, Moothi K, Bambo M, Mutanga S, Siame J. Salient ingredients for direct water reclamation from treated municipal wastewater for potable reuse: Diepsloot Township case study. Front Environ Sci. 2023; 11: 1143367. DOI: 10.3389/fenvs.2023.1143367.
  71. Netshitanini M, Adeeyo AO, Edokpayi JN. Determinants and evaluation of onsite water loss due to leakages in a selected institution in South Africa. Water. 2023; 15 (2): 217. DOI: 10.3390/w15020217.
  72. Ngcobo S, Jewitt G, Hill TR, Archer E. An assessment of the vulnerability and adaptation potential of sugarcane production to water stress, southern Africa. J Agric Food Res. 2024; 18: 101348. DOI: 10.1016/j.jafr.2024.101348.
  73. Newman BK, Velayudan A, Petrović M, Álvarez-Muñoz D, Čelić M, Oelofse G, Golenbrander D, le Roux M, Ndungu K, Madikizela LM, Chimuka L, Richards H. Occurrence and potential hazard posed by pharmaceutically active compounds in coastal waters in Cape Town, South Africa. Sci Total Environ. 2024; 949: 174800. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174800.
  74. Nhamo G, Nhemachena C, Nhamo S. Is 2030 too soon for Africa to achieve the water and sanitation sustainable development goal? Sci Total Environ. 2019; 669: 129–139. DOI: 10.1016/scitotenv.2019.03.109.
  75. Nhokodi T, Sithole T, Mutingwende N, Ristvej J, Tandlich R. Storage conditions, microbial quality, and transport costs of drinking water from alternative sources in a South African municipality. J Emerg Managem. 2023; 21 (8): 97–117. DOI: 10.5055/jem.0739.
  76. Nkwana HM, Mazenda A. Resilience to food insecurity severity among rural, female-headed agrarian households in selected provinces of South Africa. Agenda. 2024; 38 (2): 37–52. DOI: 10.1080/10130950.2024.2438639.
  77. Nondlazi S, Ngqwala NP, Zuma B, Tandlich R. Investigating the viability and performance of the pilot scalLe fly ash/lime filter tower for onsite greywater treatment. Desalin Water Treat. 2017; 91: 349–364. DOI: 10.5004/dwt.2017.21461.
  78. Nqowana T, Fogel R, Bezerra JC, Limson J. Citizen science tools for engaged research: Water quality monitoring in remote communities. South Afr J Sci. 2024; 120 (9/10): 18145. DOI: 10.17159/sajs.2024/18145.
  79. Omotayo AO, Omotoso AB. Climate-smart agricultural technology and gender-differentiated food, and water security: Evidence from smallholder sunflower (Helianthus annuus) farmers. Agric Water Managem. 2025; 308: 109276. DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2024.109276.
  80. Oputu OU, Akharame MO. Assessment of surface water quality within Cape Town, South Africa using NSF water quality index. Int J Energy Water Res. 2022; 8: 493–505. DOI: 10.1007/s42108-022-00210-3.
  81. Osunla CA, Okoh AI. Vibrio Pathogens: A public health concern in rural water resources in Sub-Saharan Africa. Int J Environ Res Publ Health. 2017; 14 (10): 1188. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14101188.
  82. Pamla A, Thondhlana G, Ruwanza S. Persistent droughts and water scarcity: Households’ perceptions and practices in Makhanda, South Africa. Land. 2021; 10 (6): 593. DOI: 10.3390/land10060593.
  83. Drinking Water Analysis Solutions. 2022.
  84. Potgieter N, Banda NT, Becker PJ, Traore-Hoffman AN. WASH infrastructure and practices in primary health care clinics in the rural Vhembe District municipality in South Africa. BMC Fam Pract. 2021; 22: 8. DOI: 10.1186/s12875-020-01346-z.
  85. Prezioso D, di Domenico D, Pane M, Ciccarelli D, D’errico G. Ion specificity in determining physico-chemical properties of drinking water. Food Sci Technol. 2019; 39 (2): 485–490. DOI: 10.1590/fst.34717.
  86. Quattrini S, Pampaloni B, Brandi ML. Natural mineral waters: Chemical characteristics and health effects. Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab. 2017; 13 (3): 173–180. DOI: 10.11138/ccmbm/2016.13.3.173.
  87. CF. Considerations of the use of the electronic tongue in sensory science. Curr Op Food Sci. 2021; 40: 87–93. DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2021.01.011.
  88. Samuels W, Awe A, Sparks C. Microplastic pollution and risk assessment in surface water and sediments of the Zandvlei Catchment and estuary, Cape Town, South Africa. Environ Pollut. 2024; 342: 122987. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122987.
  89. Santos GAC, Dropa M, Martone-Rocha S, Peternella FAS, Veiga DPB, Razzolini MTP. Microbiological monitoring of coagulase-negative Staphylococcus in public drinking water fountains: Pathogenicity factors, antimicrobial resistance and potential health risks. J Water Health. 2023; 21 (3): 361–371. DOI: 10.2166/wh.2023.274.
  90. Seanego KG, Pitcher GC, Probyn TA, Randt AD, Mansfield LM. Water quality characteristics of Vanderkloof Dam and its potential for rainbow trout farming. Water SA. 2023; 49 (2): 136–154. DOI: 10.17159/wsa/2023.v49.i2.3919.
  91. Sekgobela PK, Sibanda T. Recurrence of cholera epidemics in South Africa: Inadequate sanitary facilities, poor environmental monitoring practices, and climate change as possible contributing factors. Water SA. 2024; 50 (4): 411–420. DOI: 10.17159/wsa/2024.v50.i4.4106.
  92. Selala MS, Thenga H, Jewitt GPW, Chaplot V. Comparison of the chemical quality of rainwater harvested from roof and surface run-off systems. Water SA. 2018; 44 (2): 223–231. DOI: 10.4314/wsa.v44i2.08.
  93. Sershen S, Rodda N, Stenström TA, Schmidt S, Dent M, Bux F, Hanke N, Buckley CA, Fennemore C. Water security in South Africa: Perceptions on public expectations and municipal obligations, governance and water re-use. Water SA. 2016; 42 (3): 456–465. DOI: 10.4314/wsa.v42i3.11.
  94. South African National Standard (SANS). SANS 241ED7: Drinking Water. South African Bureau of Standards. 2024. Available at https://www.umngeni-uthukela.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/SANS241ED7_TC147_DSS_2.pdf
  95. Strijdom L, Speight V, Jacobs HE. An assessment of sub-standard water pressure in South African potable distribution systems. J Water Sanit Hygiene Dev. 2017; 7 (4): 557–567. DOI: 10.2166/washdev.2017.227.
  96. Swanepoel A, Barnard S, Recknagel F, Cao H. Evaluation of models generated via hybrid evolutionary algorithms for the prediction of Microcystis concentrations in the Vaal Dam, South Africa. Water SA. 2016; 42 (2): 243–252. DOI: 10.4314/wsa.v42i2.08.
  97. Swart M. South African National Standard Drinking Water Quality (SANS 241:2024): Principles. Rand Water, 2024.
  98. Tan J, Xu J. Applications of electronic nose (e-nose) and electronic tongue (e-tongue) in food quality-related properties determination: A review. Artific Intellig Agric. 2020; 4: 104–115. DOI: 10.1016/aiia.2020.06.003.
  99. Tandlich R, Angala H, Vhiriri EP, Moropa K, Ngqwala NP, Zuma BM. Disaster risk from diarrhoeal diseases and WASH in South Africa and Botswana in MDG time. J Disast Risk Stud. 2024; 16 (2): a1778. DOI: 10.4102/JAMBA.v16i2.1778.
  100. Tandlich R, Luyt CD, Ngqwala NP. A community-based rainwater monitoring and treatment programme in Grahamstown, South Africa. Proceeding du Seminaire International sur 1’Hydrogeologie et 1’Environment SIHE 2013. Ouargla, 2013.
  101. Tandlich R. Citizen science based monitoring of microbial water quality at a single household in a South African local municipality during the covid19 lockdown. Nova Biotechnol Chim. 2020; 19 (1): 116–123. DOI: 10.36547/nbc.v19i1.586.
  102. Thewlis G, Armitage N. Improving the water quality in the Zandvlei Estuary, Cape Town, by retrofitting sustainable drainage systems in the Diep River catchment. Water SA. 2024; 50 (4): 365–383. DOI: 10.17159/wsa/2024.v50.i4.4015.
  103. Vagin MY, Eriksson M, Winquist F. Chapter 25 — Drinking Water Analysis Using Electronic Tongues. In: Rodríguez Méndez ML (ed.). Electronic Noses and Tongues in Food Science. Elsevier, 2016: 255–264. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800243-8.00025-1.
  104. Vele L, Ubomba-Jaswa E, Edokpayi JN. Perception and acceptability of the public towards the use of harvested rainwater in water scarce regions. Water Environ J. 2024; 38 (3): 500–508. DOI: 10.1111/wej.12944.
  105. Verlicchi P, Grillini V. Surface water and groundwater quality in South Africa and Mozambique—analysis of the most critical pollutants for drinking purposes and challenges in water treatment selection. Water. 2020; 12 (1): 305. DOI: 10.3390/w12010305.
  106. Wang W, Liu Y. 3 — Electronic tongue for food sensory evaluation. In: Zhong J, Wang X (eds.). Evaluation Technologies for Food Quality. Elsevier, 2019: 23–36. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-814217-2.00003-2.
  107. Wei Z, Yang Y, Wang J, Zhang W, Ren O. The measurement principles, working parameters and configurations of voltammetric electronic tongues and its applications for foodstuff analysis. J Food Eng. 2018; 217: 75–92. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.08.005.
  108. Weston SL, Loubser C, Jacobs HE, Speight V. Short-term impacts of the filling transition across elevations in intermittent water supply systems. Urb Water J. 2023; 20 (10): 1482–1491. DOI: 10.1080/1573062X.2022.2075764.
  109. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda. 2022. ISBN 978-92-4-004506-4. Available at: https://iris.who.int/server/api/core/bitstreams/69c17edd-ee26-425b-9d3433799377e886/content
  110. Guidelines for drinking-Water Quality: Small water supplies. 2024. ISBN 978-92-4-008874-0. Available at: https://iris.who.int/server/api/core/bitstreams/4a3dc8a4-9f08-4d62-b7ec-96d70be6b177/content
  111. Developing Drinking-Water Quality Regulations and Standards: General Guidance with a special focus on countries with limited resources. 2018. ISBN 978-92-4-151394-4. Available at: https://iris.who.int/server/api/core/bitstreams/4359eab6-783a-44cc-9ebc-c3f4610cd986/content
  112. Winter K, Mgese S, Nicklin E, Maraj K. Treating and reusing polluted runoff from an informal settlement, South Africa. Water Pract Technol. 2023; 18 (4): 796–809. DOI: 10.2166/wpt.2023.045.
  113. Wnorowski AU. Research on Taste and Odour Forming Microorganisms in South African Surface Water. Water Research Commission, 1992. 320/1/93. ISBN 1 8748589 50.
  114. Zuma BM, Tandlich R, Whittington-Jones KJ, Burgess JE. Mulch tower treatment system Part I: Overall performance in greywater treatment. Desalination. 2009; 242 (1–3): 38–56. DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2008.03.030.
AUTHOR GUIDELINES
PUBLICATION ETHICS
PEER-REVIEW PROCESS
PLAGIARISM POLICY
OPEN ACCESS POLICY
PRIVACY STATEMENT
COPYRIGHT AND LICENSING
ARCHIVE

ICLOGO

gslogoDOAJ logo colourcrossreff

Scilit0

FAO-AGRIS-logo-c13e10a2

cabi

ouci0.png

OpenAlex0

logo_ezb0

cambridge_university2

zdb_logo_weiss

EUI_Liblary

nbuv

WorldCat Logo

CC BY icon     Creative Commons «Attribution» 4.0     
© 2016 The Animal Biology
© 2016 Institute of Animal Biology of NAAS
Editorial address: Institute of Animal Biology of NAAS, V. Stusa, 38, Lviv, 79034, Ukraine 
tel: +380-32-260-07-95
E-mail: editor.animbiol@gmail.com

Search